Maxims of Teaching

Maxim means a short pithy statement expressing a general truth or rule of conduct.

Significance of the maxim of teaching:

The maxims of teaching are very helpful in obtaining the active environment and participation of the learners in the teaching learning process. They quicken the interest of the learners and motivate them to learn. They keep the students attentive to the teaching learning process. They make learning effective, inspirational, interesting and meaningful. A good teacher should be quite familiar with them.

The different maxims of teaching have been briefly explained below.

1.     From known to unknown:

Known is trustworthy whereas unknown is feared. So a teacher should utilize previous knowledge of students for teaching a particular subject or topic and then help them to collect information and explore the unknown.

For example, students can right words only if they know the alphabets of a language.

Students can explore (a+b+c) ² only if they know (a+b) ²

2.     From simple to complex:

Proceeding from simple to complex subject matter provides an appropriate learning sequence, thus motivating and encouraging students to try to learn more difficult ideas.

For example, while teaching English, simple sentences should be taught first and complex sentences may be taken up later on.

3.     From indefinite to definite:

The ideas of children are vague and indefinite in the beginning. Gradually children gain more learning experiences and attend definite ideas.

For example, the respiratory system will remain vague if taught without a diagram of the nasal passage lungs etc.

4.     From concrete to abstract:

Abstract things are confusing and difficult to comprehend whereas concrete things can be visualized, are relatively simple and understandable. Acquisition of new knowledge becomes easy when it is supported with concrete examples, objects and events.

For example: a lesson in geography can be made interesting with the help of models, pictures and illustrations of the bridges, rivers and mountains etc.

 

5.     From particular to general:

Teacher should present particular examples before stating the principles and rules. A study of particular facts leads the children themselves to frame the general rule.

For example, student will gain the general idea that sum of three angles of any triangle is 180 degree if she is ask to find out the sum of 3 angles of different triangles.

6.     From actual to representative:

When actual objects are shown to children they learn easily and retain them in their minds for long time.

For example, a visit to zoo is of more value then showing the pictures of various animals.

An excursion to historical place will create better understanding than showing picture or simply telling about it in class.

7.     From whole to part:

Whole is more meaningful to the child than the parts of the whole. Guilford, Newman, and Seagoe concluded after their research that the 'whole' approach is generally better than 'part' learning because the material to be learnt makes sense and it parts can be seen by the learner as interrelated.

For example, during teaching the 'part of a flowering plant', it is better to show the entire plant and then proceed to the structure and function of each part of the plant.

8.     From psychological to logical:

While teaching, psychological principles of teaching should be kept in mind and then teaching should proceed to the logical arrangement of the subject matter. The teacher should psychologically plan learning experience is in accordance with the needs, interest and abilities of the students but the teaching act must have logic too.

For example, in a drawing lesson a child has little understanding of lines and curves. Logically we start with simple lines and curves but psychologically we start with drawing a whole animal.

9.     From near to far:

A child learns well in the surrounding in which he resides. So, he should be acquainted with his immediate environment first. Gradually he may be taught about things which are far from his immediate environment.

In a Geography lesson, we can start from the local geography and then can take up district, state, country and world gradually.

10.  From empirical to rational:

Observation and experience are the basis of empirical knowledge. Rational knowledge implies a bit of abstraction and argumentation. The general feeling is that a child first of all experiences knowledge in his day-to-day life and after that he develops rational or logical thinking.

For example, geometry makes better sense when taught in the context of everyday life instead of it in the form of a highly abstract theory.

Qualities of a good Science Textbook

 

Qualities of a good Science Textbook

   

1.     Content of the textbook should be relevant. It should be in accordance with the syllabus.

2.     Redundancy in the content should be minimal. Too much repetition of the same points can make a topic look big, reducing children’s interest in reading the book.

3.     The language of the writing and other content should be simple, in accordance with the age of the children.

4.     The book should contain relevant pictures, diagrams, tables, illustrations (solved examples and solved numerical problems), and exercises/activities.

5.     The appearance of the book should be attractive. Colorful books are more attractive. The size of the book should be appropriate.

6.     At the end of every chapter, there should be a summary and a list of references for further reading.

7.     For every chapter, there should be a guideline given in the book, both for the teacher and for the students, about what is to be expected from them.

8.     The book should contain a glossary.

9.     The writing of the content should be such that it takes care of the present social issues. For example, a problem given in a science textbook should not highlight that the father is working outside and the mother is staying home. The opposite scenario should also be portrayed to break the gender bias.

10.   The content should be based on the previous knowledge of the students. For example, if writing contains a discussion about computers, an urban child may be able to relate it to his or her previous knowledge but a rural child may not be able to do so.

11.   The author of the book should be experienced, expert, and efficient in dealing with the subject matter.

12.   The book should be written following the maxims of teaching, in a logical and psychological sequence.

13.   The printing of the book should be necessarily clear and beautiful. Printing mistakes should be avoided. The headings, sub-headings, and subject matter should be prepared according to the requirements.

14.   The paper should be of good quality. The binding of the book should be strong.

15.   The book should be affordable. An E-book version should be available, preferably for free or for a lower price.

16.   The book should be revised from time to time and necessary updates should be made.

17.   Before releasing a book, it should undergo a field trial and necessary changes should be made from the feedback. Later, the book should also be reviewed by experts.

PRINCIPLES OF FRAMING CURRICULUM

 

PRINCIPLES OF FRAMING CURRICULUM

1. Principle of child-centeredness: curriculum should be framed according to the actual needs, interests, and capacities of the child. That means a curriculum should be child-centric as the modern education system is child-centered.

2. Principles of civic and social needs: man is a social being. He/she lives in a society. Modern Education aims at both development, of the individual and society.

3. Principle of integration: the curriculum should not be split up into watertight academic subjects. Various subjects included in the curriculum at a particular stage of education should be integrated and correlated with many others subjects as well as with the real-life experience of the students.

4. Principles of flexibility: in order to serve the varying needs of the individual on the one hand and society on the other curriculum should follow the principle of flexibility and dynamism.  it should allow desirable change and modification of its content from time to time in order to keep it up to date.

5. Principles of creativeness: Education not only conserves the past experiences of humanity but also helps an individual to develop his innate potential. This aspect should be taken care of during the framing of the curriculum.

6. Principle of utility: at the time of curriculum construction utility instead of special knowledge or logical sequence should be the base. Only that which is useful for society should be included in the curriculum, and that which is not useful should be excluded, however, important matter it may be.

7. Principle of relating to community life: our curriculum should be original, and related to community life. It should allow the student to come into close contact with the life around him.

8. Principle of conservation: Man has conserved experiences very carefully for better adaptability. Education is regarded as a means of deserving the cultural heritage of humanity. The school serves two-fold functions in this regard- preservation of past experiences and transmission of experiences.

9. Principle of individual difference: the curriculum should be framed in such a way that every individual can have the opportunity for self-expression and development. The curriculum should be based on the psychology of individual differences, which can meet the complexities of a modern democratic society.

10. Principle of activity: curriculum must be based on the principle of learning by doing. It should involve the students in different types of mental and physical activities.
11. Principle of vision: a society can never be static in any way. it has to go ahead with time. While constructing a curriculum for children, the future needs of society must also be taken into account.

12. Principle of utilization of leisure: a variety of subjects such as games and sports, fine arts, music, etc. are to be introduced in the school program to utilize leisure time.

13. Principle of forward-looking: The aim of life-centered education is not limited to the present life situations in the family and society. Hence, education must prepare the child of shouldering future responsibilities. So in framing the curriculum we must take into consideration the future needs of the child as well as the needs of society.

14. Principle of preparation for living: The children should know the various activities of the environment around them and how these activities are enabling people to meet their basic needs of food, shelter, clothing, recreation, health, and education.

15. Principle of preparation for the world of work/vocation: The community needs skilled workers and professionals in different professions and occupational fields. So the curriculum should be framed in accordance with this need. The curriculum should able to guide and prepare the students for the future world of work.

 

NECESSITY OF CURRICULUM

 

NECESSITY OF CURRICULUM

1. Curriculum provides a solid frame or a structure to an education system or course and has an end goal that teachers/curriculum planners set for their students to reach.

2. Curriculum provides a boundary about what to teach and what not to teach in a school for a specific stage and specific grade.

3. It defines the method and techniques to be used by the teacher for the student's holistic development.                                                                                                         

4. It describes the various evaluation processes to be followed for assessment.

5. It is a guideline for the students, teacher, and the other stakeholders related to the school by following which the education system of a school can run successfully.

6. A well-built curriculum can act as a reagent for developing a positive attitude towards other religions, castes, gender, etc.

7. It can also act as a means for developing moral and ethical values among the students to make them good citizens.

8. Curriculum helps to organize the subject matter in a logical and psychological sequence as per the child's demands and needs.

9. A good curriculum is a reflection of that nation and society.

10. Good curriculum organizes the selected content in simple to complex hence making the education system systematic.

11. It provides work experience and vocational education to the students. Thus making them skilled for the future work environment.

12. It ideally serves as a time management and organizational tool as well; by setting an agenda ahead of time. Teachers and students have the opportunity to prepare for future reading and assignments.

SCOPE OF CURRICULUM

 

SCOPE OF CURRICULUM

The scope of the curriculum includes the knowledge, skills and values, and students' experiences needed to achieve the set educational goals. It consists of the experience or subject matter or content to which the learners are exposed. The content of every field of learning is so vast and is expanding at such a rate that it is impossible to cover any field in its entirety. Some hard decisions must be made as to what content should be selected for inclusion in the curriculum and what limitations will be placed on that curriculum.
The matter on the basis of which the scope of the curriculum is framed:

A. Socio-economic condition of the nation:

It is one of the dominant components for framing curriculum. The policy of education and its objective depends on the social and economic condition of that nation. The economic and social logical structure drives the framework of the curriculum. For example, the Indian education curriculum is a reflection of the democratic nature of the nation.

B. Socio-cultural element:

The culture of any nation is the bearer and carrier of that nation’s heritage. That is why sociocultural elements are given immense importance during defining the scope of the curriculum. It should reflect in the curricular and co-curricular activities.

C. Social needs:

It is the responsibility of the nation to fulfill the social needs of its citizen. The nation includes those needs in its education system through the curriculum. Hence these needs are given value during deciding the scope of the curriculum.

D. Peoples's religious consciousness and beliefs:

The religious consciousness and beliefs of the people have a great impact on the education system of a nation. Their religious consciousness and beliefs should be taken care of during defining the scope of the curriculum.

E. In and out of school experience:

School is the miniature of society and society frames some objectives for its citizens. One of the main goals of education is to implement those objectives through the education system in school. While defining the scope of the curriculum a balance should be made between the lives of a student in and out of the school. The students must able to relate the school experience with that of their daily life.

F. Dynamic Education system:

The curriculum should be changed and developed and new content or subject can be incorporated keeping in mind the changing society and its needs.

G. Use of human resources:

During preparing the scope of the curriculum one should keep in mind the availability of human resources related to education. Human resources available should be utilized at the optimum level for the benefit of the learners.

H. Physical/material resources:

The curriculum should be designed on the basis of the other resources available. The state should inform the curriculum developer about the availability of the resources.

I. Budget/financial resource:

Money is one of the important aspects of designing and framing a curriculum. It also serves as an important scope. Someone could not plan a curriculum without knowing how much money she could manage to run that particular curriculum.

J. Variety of the school:

All schools' structures are not the same. Their ideologies are different. Even the contexts are different in many cases. Hence while designing the curriculum the schools' requirements and other aspects like the position of the school, school type, ideology, etc. are needed to be taken care of.

 

TYPES OF CURRICULUM

 

TYPES OF CURRICULUM (On the basis of characteristics of the curriculum) 1. Overt/explicit/written: it is simply a written document as part of formal instruction of schooling experience. It may refer to a curriculum document along with text and supportive teaching material that is overtly chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a school.  the overt curriculum is usually confined to those written understandings and directions formally designated and reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors, and teachers, often collectively. 2. Societal curriculum: it is taught outside the school forming social knowledge of the world. Families, peer groups, neighborhoods, media, and other socializing forces that educate all of us throughout our lives are the agents of the societal curriculum. This type of curriculum can now be expanded to include the powerful effects of social media for example Facebook and how it actively helps to create new perspectives and can help to shape both individual and public opinion. 3. Hidden or covert curriculum: it is derived from the nature and organization of schools. It is what children learn from the administrative structure of schools and the attitude of teachers and administrators. Examples of the hidden curriculum: standing in line, raising hands to be called on, and discipline in the classroom. It may include both positive and negative messages depending on the environment provided and the perspective of the learner or the observer. 4. Null Curriculum: it is any subject matter that is not taught in school which can give students the impression that these materials are less important. For example, in the American school, the culture and history of many known Western people are often covered slightly or sometimes not at all. Physically it is not possible to teach everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be intentionally excluded from the written curriculum. TYPES OF CURRICULUM (On the basis of the objective of the curriculum) Curriculum can be framed on the basis of its aims and objectives subject matter of teaching and the method adopted curriculum may be classified into different types as follows: 1. Subject centered 2. Child centered 3. Activity centered 4. Integrated curriculum SUBJECT-CENTRED CURRICULUM: the subject-centered curriculum emphasizes oral discourse and extensive explanation. It expects teachers to plan instruction before teaching begins and to organize it around the content and it assumes that certain content should be taught to all students. The subject-centered curriculum usually consists of a study of pacific facts and ideas. The teaching method usually includes direct strategies like lectures, discussion, and questioning. The most widely used subject-centered curriculum is the separate subject curriculum. The separated subject curriculum is divided into discrete areas of study like history, chemistry literature, etc. CHILD-CENTRED CURRICULUM: The curriculum is to be varied and elastic, meeting individual differences and adapting to individual needs and requirements. Satisfaction with the child's nature is one of the important objectives of education. Unsuitable subjects of study lead to frustration among the children and often hinder their normal development. School and subject are meant to be for the child and not the child for the school. The child is not to be victimized in the name of cultural heritage, or mental discipline. The curriculum is to be child-centered where the subjects of study fall in line with the child's nature. When the interest and needs of the learner are incorporated in the curriculum, motivation tends to become intrinsic rather than extrinsic. Some important characteristics of child-centered curriculum: A. It is centered on learners B. Emphasis on promoting the all-around development of learners. C. Subject matter selected and organized cooperatively by learners during learning. D. Controlled and directed cooperatively by learners in the learning situation. E. It emphasizes meaning immediate to improving living. F. Emphasis is also given to habit and skill as an integral part of larger experiences. G. Emphasis is also given to understanding and improving through the process of learning. H. Emphasis on variability in exposure to learning and in results expected. I. Education adds each child to build a socially creative individuality. J. Education is considered a continuous intelligent process of growth. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBJECT-CENTRED AND CHILD-CENTRED CURRICULUM SUBJECT CENTRED CHILD-CENTERED 1. Centered on subject 1. Centered on learners. 2. Emphasize upon teaching subject matter 2. Promoting the all-round growth and development of the learners. 3. Subject matter selected and organized before the teaching situation. 3. Subject matter selected and organized cooperatively by all learners during the learning situation. 4. Emphasize upon teaching facts and imparting information to the students. 4. Emphasis upon meanings that will function immediately in improving living. 5. Motivation is mostly extrinsic. 5. Motivation is intrinsic. 6. Emphasis upon teaching specific habits and skills as separate and isolated aspect of learning 6. Emphasis upon building habits and skills as an integral part of larger experiences. ACTIVITY CENTRED CURRICULUM In its purest form activity centered curriculum operates with the child as the sole center of learning. Since education is life and life is ever-changing the activity-centered curriculum expects to change continually. In this approach, the psychology of learning is based on the emotional involvement of the learner. If a child develops an interest in something and becomes emotionally involved with it, Hindi learning will enhance according to the proponents of an activity-centered curriculum. This curriculum is never fixed and completely crosses subject-matter lines. Completely flexible, emphasis is placed on observation, play, stories, and handcraft. The activity-centered curriculum has not been acceptable to the public as the subject-centered curriculum. When used it has been most successful at the elementary level. Although it has never secured a foothold in secondary school, the activity-centered curriculum has had some influence on the High school program. The lack of full acceptance in high school may be partly due to the subject orientation that secondary teachers and administrators have. Also, the public seems to prefer the traditional organization and methodology of the subject-centered curriculum. Characteristics of activity-centered curriculum: 1. The interest and purposes of children determine the educational program. 2. Common learning comes about as a result of individual interest. 3. The curriculum is not planned in advance, but guidelines are established to help the students to choose alternatives as they progress through the program. 4. Solving problems becomes the principle teaching method. 5. The teacher, in preparing to teach in the activity-centered curriculum needs all the prerequisites of the core teacher and even more. 6. Because the activity-centered curriculum is flexible, the need for variety and scheduling arrangements is important. 7. Schedules using a large block of time are necessary to afford the program to its maximum potential. Integrated curriculum: Integrated curriculum transaction has come about in an attempt to decrease the number of separate subjects that have been gradually brought into the subject-centered curriculum. In place of separated and isolated classes in reading writing spelling grammar and literature the integrated curriculum combines these subjects under English or any other language. The integrated approach provides teachers and students more latitude within the broad subject area. The integrated social studies course encompasses history geography economics political science psychology sociology and anthropology. Integrated science program combines chemistry botany zoology physics geology. Mathematics gets integrated with arithmetic geometry and algebra. Advantages of integrated curriculum: a. This approach establishes logical an useful organization for presenting knowledge. b. In integrated curriculum knowledge is presented to the students in a comprehensive manner. c. Students can learn with understanding and appreciation. d. Basic principles and generalizations necessary for critical thinking are emphasized more than isolated facts. Disadvantages of integrated curriculum: A. Composition of several subjects into one does not guarantee integration in all cases. B. With the emphasis on generalization rather than specifics, learning tends to be too abstract.