STAGES OF TEACHING

Teaching involves different activities. It implies a rationally designed process. It refers to a flow of acts, from the beginning to the end. To make teaching effective teacher has to do different actions or play specific roles during the process. It is observed very accurately that teaching activities can be divided into three different phases –        Pre-active stage of teaching        Interactive stage of teaching        Post-active stage of teaching PRE-ACTIVE STAGE OF TEACHING:  It is the preparatory or planning stage of teaching. According to P.W. Jackson, in this stage, the teacher “selects objective, plans the curricula, arranges the classroom, and studies pupils’ readiness”. This stage consists of the following operations or sub-stages: - Formulating instructional objectives: The teacher determines what should be the specific instructional objectives in terms of clearly defined terminal behavior. For formulating I.O. the teacher needs to consider the entry-level behavior of the learner, the time period, the needs of the society, and the school. Deciding the Subject Content: The teacher decides the amount of content to be imparted and the specific structures he/she will try to develop in the classroom. Arranging and sequencing the content for Presentation: The teacher tries to arrange and analyze the content matter for presentation in the class during teaching. Deciding the Strategy: The teacher makes a decision regarding a proper strategy he/she will employ in teaching. Teaching considers the nature of the content and entry-level behavior of the learner.   INTERACTIVE STAGE OF TEACHING:  This stage of teaching is concerned with the implementation and carrying out of what has been planned at the pre-active stage of teaching. The activities of the teacher are right from entering the classroom till the presentation if the content is included in this stage of teaching. According to P.W. Jackson, “The teacher provides the students verbal stimulation of various kinds, makes an explanation, asks questions, listens to the student’s response, and, provides guidance at the stage of teaching”. This is the execution stage. This stage includes the following activities: - Understanding the Class: The teacher’s first activity in this stage is concerned with the perception of classroom climate. He/she keeps an eye on the faces of the learners to locate which areas may be troublesome, and which faces may be discouraging, encouraging, or apathetic. In this way, the teacher tries to understand the whole climate of the classroom. Diagnosing the Learner: The teacher then tries to diagnose the student’s achievements in three levels: -  Activities  Interest in attitude Academic Backgrounds After diagnosing the student’s achievement level, the teacher starts the interaction session. Action and Reaction: It is the actual interaction between the teacher and the taught. The moment the teacher goes into the classroom, non-verbal interactions start between him/her and the student. With his/her speech, the verbal reactions start. With more questions put by the teacher to the students, the reactive process gains momentum. Then the students also put questions to the teacher, which makes teaching more learnable for the student. The action and reaction make the teaching go on and ultimately make it a success. POST-ACTIVE STAGE OF TEACHING:  This final stage is concerned with evaluating activities. The teacher evaluates the student’s performance on the basis of terminal behavior. The teacher also assesses the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process as occurred in the interactive stage. This stage consists of the following sub-stages: - Selecting appropriate testing devices: The teacher selects appropriate tools and techniques for measuring different dimensions of behavior as expressed in terminal behavior. The test may be written, oral or practical, etc. Testing the actual behavior: With the help of testing devices, the teacher evaluates the performance of the learner. Defining the Changes of Behavior: The teacher compares the expected and actual behavioral changes of the learner. Changing the Strategies of teaching: The results found in the previous sub-stage helped the teacher to understand the strength and weaknesses of the teaching-learning process. Accordingly, the teacher modifies the teaching strategy for better result

 

Qualities of a good Science Textbook

 

Qualities of a good Science Textbook

   

1.     Content of the textbook should be relevant. It should be in accordance with the syllabus.

2.     Redundancy in the content should be minimal. Too much repetition of the same points can make a topic look big, reducing children’s interest in reading the book.

3.     The language of the writing and other content should be simple, in accordance with the age of the children.

4.     The book should contain relevant pictures, diagrams, tables, illustrations (solved examples and solved numerical problems), and exercises/activities.

5.     The appearance of the book should be attractive. Colorful books are more attractive. The size of the book should be appropriate.

6.     At the end of every chapter, there should be a summary and a list of references for further reading.

7.     For every chapter, there should be a guideline given in the book, both for the teacher and for the students, about what is to be expected from them.

8.     The book should contain a glossary.

9.     The writing of the content should be such that it takes care of the present social issues. For example, a problem given in a science textbook should not highlight that the father is working outside and the mother is staying home. The opposite scenario should also be portrayed to break the gender bias.

10.   The content should be based on the previous knowledge of the students. For example, if writing contains a discussion about computers, an urban child may be able to relate it to his or her previous knowledge but a rural child may not be able to do so.

11.   The author of the book should be experienced, expert, and efficient in dealing with the subject matter.

12.   The book should be written following the maxims of teaching, in a logical and psychological sequence.

13.   The printing of the book should be necessarily clear and beautiful. Printing mistakes should be avoided. The headings, sub-headings, and subject matter should be prepared according to the requirements.

14.   The paper should be of good quality. The binding of the book should be strong.

15.   The book should be affordable. An E-book version should be available, preferably for free or for a lower price.

16.   The book should be revised from time to time and necessary updates should be made.

17.   Before releasing a book, it should undergo a field trial and necessary changes should be made from the feedback. Later, the book should also be reviewed by experts.

TYPES OF CURRICULUM

 

TYPES OF CURRICULUM (On the basis of characteristics of the curriculum) 1. Overt/explicit/written: it is simply a written document as part of formal instruction of schooling experience. It may refer to a curriculum document along with text and supportive teaching material that is overtly chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a school.  the overt curriculum is usually confined to those written understandings and directions formally designated and reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors, and teachers, often collectively. 2. Societal curriculum: it is taught outside the school forming social knowledge of the world. Families, peer groups, neighborhoods, media, and other socializing forces that educate all of us throughout our lives are the agents of the societal curriculum. This type of curriculum can now be expanded to include the powerful effects of social media for example Facebook and how it actively helps to create new perspectives and can help to shape both individual and public opinion. 3. Hidden or covert curriculum: it is derived from the nature and organization of schools. It is what children learn from the administrative structure of schools and the attitude of teachers and administrators. Examples of the hidden curriculum: standing in line, raising hands to be called on, and discipline in the classroom. It may include both positive and negative messages depending on the environment provided and the perspective of the learner or the observer. 4. Null Curriculum: it is any subject matter that is not taught in school which can give students the impression that these materials are less important. For example, in the American school, the culture and history of many known Western people are often covered slightly or sometimes not at all. Physically it is not possible to teach everything in schools, many topics and subject areas must be intentionally excluded from the written curriculum. TYPES OF CURRICULUM (On the basis of the objective of the curriculum) Curriculum can be framed on the basis of its aims and objectives subject matter of teaching and the method adopted curriculum may be classified into different types as follows: 1. Subject centered 2. Child centered 3. Activity centered 4. Integrated curriculum SUBJECT-CENTRED CURRICULUM: the subject-centered curriculum emphasizes oral discourse and extensive explanation. It expects teachers to plan instruction before teaching begins and to organize it around the content and it assumes that certain content should be taught to all students. The subject-centered curriculum usually consists of a study of pacific facts and ideas. The teaching method usually includes direct strategies like lectures, discussion, and questioning. The most widely used subject-centered curriculum is the separate subject curriculum. The separated subject curriculum is divided into discrete areas of study like history, chemistry literature, etc. CHILD-CENTRED CURRICULUM: The curriculum is to be varied and elastic, meeting individual differences and adapting to individual needs and requirements. Satisfaction with the child's nature is one of the important objectives of education. Unsuitable subjects of study lead to frustration among the children and often hinder their normal development. School and subject are meant to be for the child and not the child for the school. The child is not to be victimized in the name of cultural heritage, or mental discipline. The curriculum is to be child-centered where the subjects of study fall in line with the child's nature. When the interest and needs of the learner are incorporated in the curriculum, motivation tends to become intrinsic rather than extrinsic. Some important characteristics of child-centered curriculum: A. It is centered on learners B. Emphasis on promoting the all-around development of learners. C. Subject matter selected and organized cooperatively by learners during learning. D. Controlled and directed cooperatively by learners in the learning situation. E. It emphasizes meaning immediate to improving living. F. Emphasis is also given to habit and skill as an integral part of larger experiences. G. Emphasis is also given to understanding and improving through the process of learning. H. Emphasis on variability in exposure to learning and in results expected. I. Education adds each child to build a socially creative individuality. J. Education is considered a continuous intelligent process of growth. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SUBJECT-CENTRED AND CHILD-CENTRED CURRICULUM SUBJECT CENTRED CHILD-CENTERED 1. Centered on subject 1. Centered on learners. 2. Emphasize upon teaching subject matter 2. Promoting the all-round growth and development of the learners. 3. Subject matter selected and organized before the teaching situation. 3. Subject matter selected and organized cooperatively by all learners during the learning situation. 4. Emphasize upon teaching facts and imparting information to the students. 4. Emphasis upon meanings that will function immediately in improving living. 5. Motivation is mostly extrinsic. 5. Motivation is intrinsic. 6. Emphasis upon teaching specific habits and skills as separate and isolated aspect of learning 6. Emphasis upon building habits and skills as an integral part of larger experiences. ACTIVITY CENTRED CURRICULUM In its purest form activity centered curriculum operates with the child as the sole center of learning. Since education is life and life is ever-changing the activity-centered curriculum expects to change continually. In this approach, the psychology of learning is based on the emotional involvement of the learner. If a child develops an interest in something and becomes emotionally involved with it, Hindi learning will enhance according to the proponents of an activity-centered curriculum. This curriculum is never fixed and completely crosses subject-matter lines. Completely flexible, emphasis is placed on observation, play, stories, and handcraft. The activity-centered curriculum has not been acceptable to the public as the subject-centered curriculum. When used it has been most successful at the elementary level. Although it has never secured a foothold in secondary school, the activity-centered curriculum has had some influence on the High school program. The lack of full acceptance in high school may be partly due to the subject orientation that secondary teachers and administrators have. Also, the public seems to prefer the traditional organization and methodology of the subject-centered curriculum. Characteristics of activity-centered curriculum: 1. The interest and purposes of children determine the educational program. 2. Common learning comes about as a result of individual interest. 3. The curriculum is not planned in advance, but guidelines are established to help the students to choose alternatives as they progress through the program. 4. Solving problems becomes the principle teaching method. 5. The teacher, in preparing to teach in the activity-centered curriculum needs all the prerequisites of the core teacher and even more. 6. Because the activity-centered curriculum is flexible, the need for variety and scheduling arrangements is important. 7. Schedules using a large block of time are necessary to afford the program to its maximum potential. Integrated curriculum: Integrated curriculum transaction has come about in an attempt to decrease the number of separate subjects that have been gradually brought into the subject-centered curriculum. In place of separated and isolated classes in reading writing spelling grammar and literature the integrated curriculum combines these subjects under English or any other language. The integrated approach provides teachers and students more latitude within the broad subject area. The integrated social studies course encompasses history geography economics political science psychology sociology and anthropology. Integrated science program combines chemistry botany zoology physics geology. Mathematics gets integrated with arithmetic geometry and algebra. Advantages of integrated curriculum: a. This approach establishes logical an useful organization for presenting knowledge. b. In integrated curriculum knowledge is presented to the students in a comprehensive manner. c. Students can learn with understanding and appreciation. d. Basic principles and generalizations necessary for critical thinking are emphasized more than isolated facts. Disadvantages of integrated curriculum: A. Composition of several subjects into one does not guarantee integration in all cases. B. With the emphasis on generalization rather than specifics, learning tends to be too abstract.

COMPONENTS OF CREATIVITY

 

1. Flexibility: creativity often begins with the flexible combination and modification of concepts or strategies to produce new, different types of representations. It is the ability to cross boundaries, resign existing norms, and contemporary ideas, think of new ideas as well as ability to adapt and appreciate new ideas and thoughts.

2. Fluency: this is the ability to come up with many diverse ideas quickly. This is measured by the total number of ideas generated. The ability to think about diverse ideas quickly is an important component of creativity.

3. Originality: this is related to the Novelty of ideas. Creativity involves producing original ideas that are unusual for a novel, and it sometimes involves combining two or more different concepts to create a new, synthesized idea.

4. Elaboration: This measure the amount of detail associated with the idea. Elaboration has more to do with focusing on each solution or Idea and developing it further.

5. Usability: it is another important component of creativity. Those ideas and objects of theories will be called creative which are useful to some extent directly or indirectly.

6. Motivation: it can be thought of as the driving force for creativity. In major cases, intrinsic motivation like passion for purpose and interest fund for doing something is the driving forces for creativity. Sometimes extrinsic motivation like there also played a crucial role in creativity.

7. Expertise: it is technical, procedural, and intellectual knowledge. Spending more time with ideas, acquiring skills, and thus acquiring expertise is other essential component of creativity. If someone has more expertise in his work for example more skilled in handling operators and doing reactions in the laboratory it will enhance and enrich his creativity.

8. Sensitivity: it is the ability to sense problems, to see deficiencies and needs in life, and the challenge to find the solution and feel these needs. it is the ability to be sensitive to our inner life and the pleasure of seeking and discovering ideas.

9. Reflection: it is the ability to consider and reconsider; to evaluate our own ideas as well as the ideas of others; to take time to achieve understanding and insight, to look ahead and plan, to visualize the complete picture.

10. Focus: the focus is an essential component of creativity. Cannot create until he or she is fully engaged in the process and he or she cannot fully engage in the process if she is distracted by other stimuli. It helps someone to work hard, long, consistently, and persistently with extraordinary concentration.